Fluctuations of alternative end-joining throughout the cell cycle with emphasis in Mitosis
Durch ionisierende Strahlung (IR) induzierte DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche (DSBs) in Zellen höherer Eukaryoten werden hauptsächlich durch die Reparaturmechanismen der konstitutiven nichthomologen Endverknüpfung (c-NHEJ) und der homologen Rekombination (HR) repariert. Wenn diese Wege beeinträchtigt werden, können Zellen eine weitere Form der Endverknüpfung, den sogenannten alternativen Endverknüpfungs-Reparaturweg (alt-EJ) verwenden, die als „Backup“ fungiert. Darüber hinaus kann unter bestimmten Bedingungen und für bestimmte Regionen des Genoms auch die Einzelstrang-Annealing (SSA) eingreifen. Während die c-NHEJ im gesamten Zellzyklus aktiv ist, is die HR nur in der S- und G2-Phase des Zellzyklus aktiv. Die Alt-EJ und die SSA können während des gesamten Zellzyklus aktiv sein, weisen aber ihre höchste Aktivität in der G2-Phase auf. Die Effizienz von alt-EJ während der frühen/mittleren S-Phase bleibt weiterhin ungeklärt. Insbesondere deuten mehrere Berichte in der Literatur darauf hin, dass alle Mechanismen der DSB-Reparatur während der Mitose (M-Phase) unterdrückt werden. Diese Berichte stehen im Gegensatz zu früheren Studien aus unserem Labor, aber auch zu Studien von anderen Forschern, die eine effektive Reparatur von DSB in M-Phasen-Zellen zeigen konnten.
DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) induced by ionizing radiation (IR) in cells of higher eukaryotes are repaired mainly by classical non-homologous end-joining (c-NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR). When these pathways are compromised, cells may use another form of endjoining that operates as a backup, the so-called alternative end-joining (alt-EJ) repair pathway. In addition, single strand annealing (SSA) may also engage under certain conditions and for certain regions in the genome. While c-NHEJ is active throughout the cell cycle, HR functions only in Sand G2-phase of the cell cycle. Alt-EJ and SSA may function throughout the cell cycle, but they are more active in G2-phase. The efficiency of alt-EJ during early/mid S-phase remains unclear. Notably, several reports in literature suggest that all forms of DSB processing are suppressed during M-Phase. These reports are in contrast to earlier studies from our laboratory, but also to studies of other investigators, showing efficient repair of DSBs in M-phase cells. The current study aims to address two key questions: How does the efficiency of alt-EJ fluctuate from early/mid S-phase up to G2-phase of the cell cycle, and what is the actual ability of mammalian M-phase cells to repair DSBs and which repair pathways are involved? Pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) experiments were carried οn highly synchronized A549 cells in early S-phase. Cells were exposed to 20Gy of X-rays and DSB repair kinetics were analyzed up to 4h post irradiation. In order to improve the accuracy of PFGE analysis, a new mathematical analysis method was developed, which takes into consideration the sensitivity changes of PFGE, as cells replicate their DNA. Using this method of PFGE analysis in synchronized early S-phase cells and upon suppression of c-NHEJ, the amount of DSBs was found to be reduced by almost 80% 4h after irradiation, similar to G2 synchronized cells. Hence, upon suppression of c-NHEJ, cells have the ability to repair DSBs with the same efficiency during Sand G2-phase through alt-EJ. RPE and A549 cells, which are synchronized in M-phase by shakeoff, experience seriously reduced alt-EJ functionality. Upon suppression of c-NHEJ using a DNAPKcs inhibitor, mitotic cells reduced their DSBs by only ~30% 4h after exposure to 20Gy. Our previous studies have found compromised alt-EJ in G0 cells as well as limited efficiency in G1 cells. These findings, combined with the current results, lead to the following conclusion: alt-EJ is suppressed in G0, the functionality of alt-EJ recovers when cells enter G1-phase and reaches its maximum efficiency as they progress through S- and G2-phase, dropping abruptly again as cells enter mitosis. Regarding the ability of M-phase mammalian cells to repair DSBs, and in contrast to recent reports in the literature, the current study reveals a robust repair of DSBs during M-phase. In full agreement with the literature, the use of flow cytometry and foci detection shows that the levels of γ-H2AX are not decreasing with time when cells are blocked at metaphase. When, however, repair of DSBs was measured in the same cell populations using PFGE, a robust repair of DSBs was evident within 4h after IR (10-30Gy) depending on the cell line. Moreover, PCC experiments analyzing chromosome breaks in G1-phase support the notion that, when cells are blocked in metaphase for increasing periods of time, they repair DSBs. It was specifically observed that the cells arrive in G1 with less unrepaired chromosome breaks depending on the time of arrestment in metaphase. In other words, the number of unrepaired PCC breaks is inversely proportional to the time, during which the cells are blocked in metaphase. Another finding, which confirms DSB processing during metaphase after irradiation of mitotic cells, is that Isodicentric chromosomes were detected. Analysis of DSB processing in metaphase using PFGE revealed that this processing mainly reflects the function of c-NHEJ, as the DSB repair can be strongly suppressed by inhibitors of DNA-PKcs. Strikingly, residual rejoining measured under these conditions is sensitive to defects in components of alt-EJ, such as PARP1 and Ligases I/III. Inhibition of RAD52 and ATR had no effect on the repair kinetics of mitotic DSBs. These results indicate that SSA and HR play no role in mitotic DSB repair. The current study, combined with our previous reports, leads to the conclusion that alt-EJ has low activity in G0, which rises as cells proceed to G1-phase and maximizes during the S/G2-phase of the cell cycle, only to drop abruptly when cells enter mitosis, although it still remains active. Additionally, the results show efficient repair of DSBs in mitosis mainly through c-NHEJ and secondarily through alt-EJ. Finally, although in interphase cells DSB signaling reflects the repair activity very well, during M-phase of the cell cycle the kinetics of key proteins related to the repair, i.e. γ-H2AX, fail to reflect this repair.